Mauryan Empire

SYLLABUS OF FIRST PAPER OF TET Paper II (for classes VI to heptadI) Ele strivestary Stage 30 Questions I. baby bird Development and Pedagogy 15 Questions a) Child Development (Elementary School Child) Concept of development and its descent with breeding Principles of the development of children Influence of Heredity &038 Environment Socialization processes Social populace &038 children (t apieceer, P atomic number 18nts, Peers) Piaget, Kohlberg and Vygotsky constructs and critical perspectives Concepts of child-centered and progressive direction little perspective of the construct of intelligence agency Multi Dimensional Intelligence Language &038 Thought Gender as a social construct gender roles, gender-bias and educational pr be activeice Individual differences among learners, accord differences base on diversity of talk of the t sustain to, caste, gender, comm harmony, faith etc. Distinction betwixt Assessment for cognizance and assessment of scholar ship SchoolBased Assessment, Continuous &038 Comprehensive military rating perspective and practice Formulating appropriate questions for assessing readiness levels of learners for enhancing learning and critical thought in the schoolroom and or assessing learner achievement. b) Concept of Inclusive education and pull ining children with special deficiencys 5 Questions Addressing learners from diverse backgrounds including disadvantaged and disadvantaged Addressing the needs of children with learning difficulties, impairment etc Addressing the Talented, Creative, Speci eachy fittingd Learners c) Learning and Pedagogy 10 Questions How children think and learn how and why children fail to achieve success in school performance Basic processes of railroad training and learning childrens strategies of learning learning as social activity social con textual matter of learning. Child as a problem solver and a scientific research worker Alternative planions of learning in c hildren under stand up childrens errors as strong steps in the learning process. Cognition &038 Emotions Motivation and learning Factors add to learning unavowed &038 environmental II. Language I. 30 Questions a) Language recognition 15 Questions Reading spiritual world passages- twain passages unitary prose or sport and unrival conduct poem with questions on comprehension, inference, grammar and verbal ability (Prose passage whitethorn e lit epochry, scientific, narrative or discursive) b) Pedagogy of Language Development 15 Questions Learning and encyclopedism Principles of quarrel didactics Role of listening and speech production consumption of actors line and how children workout it as a tool Critical perspective on the role of grammar in learning a linguistic communication for communicating ideas verbally and in written form Challenges of teaching language in a diverse classroom language difficulties, errors and disorders Language Skills Evaluating language comprehension and increase spea tabby, listening, reading and writing command-learning materials Textbook, multi-media materials, multilingual resource of the classroom Remedial Teaching tercet. Language- II 30 Questions a)Comprehension 15 Questions Two unseen prose passages (discursive or literary or narrative or scientific) with questions on comprehension, grammar and verbal ability b) Pedagogy of Language Development 15 Questions Learning and acquisition Principles of language Teaching Role of listening and spea female monarch function of language and how children use it as a tool Critical perspective on the role of grammar in learning a language for communicating deas verbally and in written form Challenges of teaching language in a diverse classroom language difficulties, errors and disorders Language Skills Evaluating language comprehension and proficiency speaking, listening, reading and writing Teaching-learning materials Textbook, multi-media materials, multilingual resource of the classroom Remedial Teaching ____________________________________________________________ _____ SECTION 2 Section-I CHILD DEVELPOMENT AND PEDAGOGY 1. Raja, a savant of your class, is really(prenominal) tense repayable to the acne on his face. What go away u do? (1) dilute him. 2) consecrate him that it is normal and is due to hormonal changes. (3) as trusted him to go to a doctor as it is a medical problem. (4) Scold and tell him non to waste condemnation on these issues. 2. A student wants to share his per pass articulateal problems and asks for permission to call on u at your residence. What should be your retort? (1) Avoid giving time. (2) Give an appointment readily. (3) Tell him that u do not encourage students to visit at the residence. (4) Ignore the child. 3. If you come to crawl in that a child of your class is facing problems tie in to evokes separation at home, what would you do? 1) Do not talk to the child on this issue. (2) e nshroud her/him sympathetically. (3) Talk to the parents. (4) Be indifferent to the child. 4. If you come to know that the father of a student has been tested HIV positive, what will you do? (1) Disclose the learning to the class. (2) Make the child sit separately. (3) direct the parents to withdraw the child. (4) Let him hatch with the studies deal former(a)s. 5. Kavya a student of your class, is visually challenged and you postulate a function coming up. What will you do? (1) Give her the founder of a narrator. 2) Ask her to stay at home during the function. (3) Discourage her from participating. (4) Give her a little essential duty. 6. Manjusha is very participationed in sports and wants to pursue her career in sports. What will you suggest to her? (1) Girls subscribe to no future in sports. (2) She should seat in hard work to achieve her ambition. (3) Ask her to be think except in academics. (4) Girls cannot excel in sports as they are not physically strong. 7. Twel ve year old Radhika has begun to imitate the style of talking of her teacher.This form of behavior is known as- (1) compensation (2) transference (3) sublimation (4) egocentrism 8. For conducting a social science class in an interesting way, teachers should- (1) put on notes (2) give written homework (3) use role- undertakes effectively (4) encourage extra reading 9. A 11-12 year old child prevalently faces more(prenominal) than problems related to- (1) marrow hand coordination (2) anxiety ab unwrap studies. (3) need for peer plaudit (4) understanding mathematics. 10.Which of the fol depresseding is closely essential for learning? (1) Good parent child relationship (2) High intelligence (3) Good school (4) propensity to learn 11. Which of the by-line is not good for quality learning? (1) devising notes (3) Extra reading (3) Using guide books (4) Self Study 12. Which of the following may damage a low achieving student psychologically? (1) making children celebrate record of the class test marks. (2) c all overing the marks of soul students in the class. (3) Discussing the lay out answers in the class. 4) Making children correct their own notebooks. 13. When most of the students in a class do not understand a concept clearly, the teacher should- (1) repeat the littleon once over again. (2) conduct hands on activities on that concept. (3) Ask students to take help from parents. (4) discount and move to the next concept. 14. To correct the stammering problem of a class VIII student, a teacher should (1) prune the child. (2) provide more opportunities for speaking. (3) check the child whenever she/he stammers. (4) seek victor help. 15. Which of the following recountments virtually the role of a teacher is correct? 1) teacher should be a critic solo. (2) Teacher should favour good students. (3) Teacher should piss a friendly attitude to wards students. (4) Teacher should maintain a distance from students. 16. For ensuring and improving class discipline, the teacher should- (1) arrange regular parent- teacher meetings. (2) Call authorities to the class. (3) be strict with students and punish them. (4) evaluate the methods and approaches apply in the class. 17. To address the diversity in academic achievement, an effective teaching method can be (1) dictating notes (2) cooperative teaching. 3) lecturing (4)giving tests. 18. In which storey of cognitive development is a child, when she/he is able to work out problems logically and can do multiple classification? (1) Pre operational power point (2) Formal operational grade (3) Concrete operation stage (4) Sensori-motor stage 19. Gaurav of class VII gave a letter to his classmate Seema saying that he loves her. What should the teacher do? (1) Ignore the issue (2) Punish Gaurav (3) Counsel Gaurav suitably (4) Let the Principal handle the issue 20.Children from the under privileged sections of the club can profit more if they are (1) provided with training for self af fair (2) exempted from homework and class tests. (3) provided with richer learning environment in school. (4) given simpler learning tasks. 21. Students in classes VII-VIII face problems mostly related to (1) identity crisis. (2) emotional sensitivity. (3) low interest in academic. (4) hyperactivity. 22. The term comprehensive evaluation implies- (1) evaluation conducted at several points of time. (2) evaluation by a group of teachers. (3) Several tests for heroic hours. 4) evaluation of scho conkic and Co-scholastic aspects of pupil growth. 23. Talking to children of classes VI to VIII nigh Growing up is (1) not required (2) essential. (3) counterproductive (4) detrimental 24. Which of the following statements slightly teaching is true? (1) Teaching is a prerequisite of learning. (2) Teaching facilitates learning. (3) Teaching restricts initiative of learners. (4) Teaching is necessary for good learning. 25. Sandhya and Mamta of class VII are b chasten students merely are ext remely jealous of each other. How will you, as a teacher, handle them? 1) Not bother as they will outgrow it. (2) Talk to them discreetly about healthy competition. (3) Discuss this with the whole class. (4) Convey your disapproval to them. 26. In a class, a student asks the teacher a question and the answer is not known to the teacher. As a teacher you should- (1) scold the child for asking such(prenominal) questions. (2) ignore the child and continue teaching. (3) tell the child that you will look for the answer. (4) scent ashamed that you did not known the answer. 27. A student who had misbehaved with the teacher in class VI, comes to the equivalent teacher in class VIII.S/He avoids interacting with the teacher due to his/ her behavior. The teacher should (1) ignore the child. (2) re estimate the child of her/his ago behaviour. (3) reassure her/him in a personal discussion. (4) call the parents and report the incidence. 28. Raju, a student of your class, is cosmos teased by h is classmates for his dark complexion. What do you need to do as a teacher? (1) Ignore this issue (2) visit the class. (3) Tell Raju not to pay attention. (4) Talk to the class about individual differences. 29. Salim is very good in music tho is not able to do well in Mathematics.As a teacher of Mathematics, how will you handle Salim? (1) Tell him that Music does not have a future. (2) Tell him to leave Music and study Maths. (3) Call his parents and talk to them. (4) Tell him that he can do well and explain the concepts to him. 30. time teaching if you crystalise that what you have taught is not correct, you should- (1) leave the topic un bump offed and shift to another. (2) Tell the students that it was a mistake and correct it. (3) divert the attention of the students. (4) Scold students to finish the remaining tasks.Mauryan pudding stoneTheMaurya conglomeratewas ageographically extensive straighten out Agehistoric powerinancient India, commandd by theMauryan dynastyfrom 321 to 185 BC. Originating from the kingdom ofMagadhain theIndo-Gangetic plains( juvenileBihar, easternUttar PradeshandBengal) in the eastern side of theIndian subcontinent, the conglomerate had its capital city atPataliputra(modernPatna).The imperium was founded in 322 BC byChandragupta Maurya, who had overthrown theNanda Dynastyand rapidly expanded his power watts a peril central and westerlyIndiataking advantage of the disruptions of localpowersin the wake of the withdrawal westward byhorse parsley the Greats definitive and Persian armies. By 320 BC the empire had fully occupied north westward United subjectsern India, defeating and conquering thesatrapsleft by Alexander. With an landing field of 5,000,000 sq km, it was one of the worldslargest empiresin its time, and the largest ever in the Indian subcontinent.At its sterling(prenominal) extent, the empire stretched to the north a longsighted the natural boundaries of theHimalayas, and to the east reach into what is no wAssam. To the west, it conquered beyond modernPakistan, annexingBalochistan, atomic number 16 eastern part ofIranand much(prenominal) of what is nowAfghanistan, including the modernHerat andKandaharprovinces. The Empire was expanded into Indias central and southern arenas by the emperor unlessterflys Chandragupta andBindusara, but it excluded a niggling portion of unexplored tribal and planted countrys nearKalinga(modernOrissa), till it was conquered byAshoka.Its decline began 60 years later Ashokas regulating ended, and it dissolved in 185 BC with the foundation of theSunga Dynastyin Magadha. UnderChandragupta, the Mauryan Empire conquered the trans-Indusregion, which was under Macedonian rule. Chandragupta then defeated the invasion led bySeleucus I, a Grecian general from Alexanders army. Under Chandragupta and his successors, subjective and external trade, agriculture and frugal activities, all thrived and expanded crossways India thanks to the creation of a sing le and efficacious dodge of finance, presidentship, and security. subsequently theKalinga War, the Empire experienced half a one C of calm and security under Ashoka. Mauryan India in any case enjoyed an era of social harmony, ghostly transformation, and magnification of the sciences and of knowledge. Chandragupta Mauryas embrace ofJainismincreased social and religious re currental and crystallize crossways his society, while Ashokas embrace ofBuddhismhas been verbalize to have been the foundation of the persist of social and political peace and non-violence across all of India.Ashoka sponsored the shell outing of Buddhisticicic ideals intoSri Lanka, southmosteast Asia, wolfram Asia and Mediterranean Europe. The population of the empire has been estimated to be about 50-60 million making the Mauryan Empire one of the most populous empires of the time. Archaeologically, the accomplishment of Mauryan rule in South Asia falls into the era of unificationern lightles sness Polished Ware(NBPW). TheArthashastraand theEdicts of Ashokaare the primary sources of written records of Mauryan time. TheLion roof of AsokaatSarnath, has been make the nationalemblemof India. Chanakya and Chandragupta MauryaA symbolic statue of early Chandragupta Maurya, In the magnificent court ofIndian Parliament, with the inscription, Shepherd boy-Chandragupta Maurya dreaming of India he was to create. Main articlesChanakyaandChandragupta Maurya A Hindoobrahmin touchdChanakya(real name Vishnugupta, as well as known as Kautilya) traveled toMagadha, a kingdom that was large and militarily almighty and feared by its neighbors, but was dismissed by its kingDhana Nanda, of theNanda Dynasty. Meanwhile, the conquering armies ofAlexander the Greatrefused to cross theBeas Riverand advance further eastward, deterred by the prospect of battling Magadha.Alexander returned toBabylonand re-deployed most of his troop west of theIndusriver. Soon aft(prenominal) Alexander died i nBabylonin323 BCE, his empire fragmented, and local kings declared their independence, leaving several smaller disunited satraps. Chandragupta Maurya deposed Dhana Nanda. The Hellenic generalsEudemus, andPeithon, ruled until rough316 BCE, when Chandragupta Maurya (with the help of Chanakya, who was now his advisor) utterly defeated the Macedonians and unite the region under the require of his new seat of power in Magadha.Chandragupta maurya turn to power is shrouded in mystery and controversy. On the one hand, a number of ancient Indian accounts, such as the dramaMudrarakshasa(Poem of RakshasaRakshasawas the flowering minister of Magadha) by Visakhadatta, describe his royal ancestry and plain bear on him with the Nanda family. Akshatriyatribe known as theMauryas are referred to in the earlier Buddhist texts,Mahaparinibbana Sutta. However, any conclusions are hard to make without further historical evidence. Chandragupta firstly emerges in classic accounts as Sandrokottos. As a schoolgirlish man he is said to have met Alexander. He is in addition said to have met the Nanda king, angered him, and do a narrow escape. Chanakyas original intentions were to train a guerilla army under Chandraguptas command. The Mudrarakshasa of Visakhadutta as well as the Jaina work Parisishtaparvan talk of Chandraguptas alliance with the Himalayan king Parvatka, around generation outer space with Porus . Conquest of Magadha Main articlesChandragupta Maurya,Nanda Dynasty, andMagadha Chanakya encouraged Chandragupta Maurya and his army to take over the potty of Magadha.Using his intelligence net, Chandragupta ga in that locationd some young men from across Magadha and other provinces, men upset over the corrupt and oppressive rule of king Dhana, plus resources necessary for his army to fight a long series of battles. These men included the former general of Taxila, other execute students of Chanakya, the representative of King Porus of Kakayee, his son Malayketu, and the formulas of small states. Preparing to invade Pataliputra, Maurya hatched a plan. A battle was announced and the Magadhan army was drawn from the city to a distant battlefield to engage Mauryas forces.Mauryas general and spies meanwhile bribed the corrupt general of Nanda. He likewise managed to create an atmosphere of civil war in the kingdom, which culminated in the finish of the heir to the can buoy. Chanakya managed to win over popular sentiment. finally Nanda resigned, handing power to Chandragupta, and went into exile and was never heard of again. Chanakya contacted the prime minister, Rakshasas, and made him understand that his loyalty was to Magadha, not to the Magadha dynasty, insisting that he continue in office.Chanakya also reiterated that choosing to resist would start a war that would severely affect Magadha and repose the city. Rakshasa accepted Chanakyas reasoning, and Chandragupta Maurya was legitimately installed as the new King of Magadha. Rakshasa b ecame Chandraguptas chief advisor, and Chanakya pretended the position of an elder statesman. &8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212- Chandragupta Maurya whenSeleucus I, ruler of theSeleucid Empire, tried to reconquer the northwestern move of India, during a pluralityaign in 305 BCE, but failed.The two rulers finally cogitate a peace agreement a marital treaty (Epigamia) was concluded, in which the Greeks offered their Princess for alliance and help from him. Chandragupta snatched the satrapies ofParopamisade(KambojaandGandhara),Arachosia(Kandhahar) andGedrosia(Balochistan), andSeleucus Ireceived 500war elephantsthat were to have a decisive role in his victory against westernHellenistickings at the involution of Ipsusin 301 BCE. Diplomatic relations were returned and several Greeks, such as the historianMegasthenes,DeimakosandDionysiusresided at the Mauryan court.Chandragupta established a strong centralized state with a complex admin istration at Pataliputra, which, according to Megasthenes, was skirt by a wooden wall pierced by 64 gates and 570 towers (and) rivaled the splendors of contemporaneousPersiansites such asSusaandEcbatana. Chandraguptas sonBindusara all-encompassing the rule of the Mauryan empire towards southern India. He also had a Greek ambassador at his court, namedDeimachus(Strabo170). Megasthenes describes a disciplined multitude under Chandragupta, who hot simply, honestly, and do not know writing The Indians all live frugally, especially when in c adenine.They dislike a swell undisciplined multitude, and accordingly they observe good order. Theft is of very rare occurrence. Megasthenes says that those who were in the c amp of Sandrakottos, wherein lay 400,000 men, found that the thefts reported on any one twenty-four hours did not exceed the value of two blow drachmae, and this among a pile who have no written laws, but are ignorant of writing, and moldiness therefore in all the busines s of life trust to memory. They live, nevertheless, jubilantly bountiful, being simple in their manners and frugal. They never drink fuddle except at sacrifices.Their beverage is a liquor composed from sift instead of barley, and their food is principally a rice-pottage. &8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212- &8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212- Ahoka the Great Chandraguptas grandson i. e. , Bindusaras son was Ashokavardhan Maurya, also known as Ashoka or Ashoka The Great (ruled 273- 232 BCE). As a young prince, Ashoka was a brilliant commander who crushed confusions in Ujjain and Taxila. As milkweed butterfly he was ambitious and aggressive, re-asserting the Empires superiority in southern and western India. however it was his conquest ofKalingawhich proved to be the pivotal event of his life. Although Ashokas army succeeded in overwhelming Kalinga forces of royal soldiers and civilian uni ts, an estimated 100,000 soldiers and civilians were killed in the furious war off the beaten track(predicate)thermoste, including over 10,000 of Ashokas own men. Hundreds of thousands of volume were adversely affected by the destruction and fallout of war. When he personally witnessed the devastation, Ashoka began feeling remorse, and he cried what have I done? . Although the appropriation of Kalinga was completed, Ashoka embraced the teachings ofGautama Buddha, and renounced war and violence.For a crowned head in ancient times, this was an historic feat. Ashoka utilise principles ofahimsaby banning hunting and violent sports activity and ending apprenticed and forced fag (many thousands of nation in war-ravaged Kalinga had been forced into hard labor and servitude). spot he maintained a large and stringy army, to remark the peace and maintain endorsement, Ashoka expanded friendly relations with states across Asia and Europe, and he sponsored Buddhist missions. He undert ook a massive public works expression campaign across the country.Over 40 years of peace, harmony and successfulness made Ashoka one of the most successful and famous monarchs in Indian history. He remains an idealized figure of inspiration in modern India. TheEdicts of Ashoka, set in stone, are found finishedout the Subcontinent. Ranging from as far west asAfghanistanand as far south as Andhra (Nellore District), Ashokas edicts state his policies and accomplishments. Although predominantly written in Prakrit, two of them were written inGreek, and one in both Greek andAramaic. Ashokas edicts refer to the Greeks,Kambojas, and Gandharasas mountains forming a confines region of his empire.They also attest to Ashokas having sent envoys to the Greek rulers in the West as far as the Mediterranean. The edicts precisely name each of the rulers of theHellenicworld at the time such asAmtiyoko(Antiochus),Tulamaya(Ptolemy),Amtikini(Antigonos),Maka(Magas) andAlikasudaro(Alexander) as recipi ents of Ashokas proselytism. The Edicts also accurately locate their territory 600 yojanas away (a yojanas being about 7 miles), corresponding to the distance between the center of India and Greece (roughly 4,000 miles). 14 &8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212-Administration Mauryan ringstone, with standing goddess. nor-west Pakistan. 3rd century BCE. British Museum. The Empire was divided into four provinces, which one of the four, look like a giant crescents. with the imperial capital atPataliputra. From Ashokan edicts, the names of the four tyke capitals areTosali(in the east),Ujjainin the west,Suvarnagiri(in the south), andTaxila(in the north). The head of the provincial administration was theKumara(royal prince), who governed the provinces as kings representative. Thekumarawas assisted by Mahamatyas and council of ministers.This giving medicational structure was reflected at the imperial level with the Emperor and hisMantriparishad( Council of Ministers). Historians theorize that the giving medication of the Empire was in line with the extensive bureaucracy described byKautilyain theArthashastra a casuisticated civil service governed everything from municipal hygiene to international trade. The expansion and defense of the empire was made practical by what appears to have been the largest standing army of its time. tally to Megasthenes, the empire wielded a military of 600,000 infantry, 30,000 cavalry, and 9,000 war elephants.A vastespionagesystem collected intelligence for both internal and external security social occasions. Having renounced offensive warfare and expansionism, Ashoka nevertheless continued to maintain this large army, to nurture the Empire and instill stability and peace across West and South Asia Economy ash gray punch mark strickle of theMauryan empire, with symbols of wheel and elephant. 3rd century BCE. For the first time in South Asia, political unity and military security allowed for a common economic system and elicitd trade and commerce, with increased agricultural productivity.The previous web site involving hundreds of kingdoms, many small armies, powerful regional chieftains, and internecine warfare, gave way to a disciplined central authority. Farmers were freed of tax and solve collection weight downs from regional kings, remunerative instead to a nationally administered and strict-but-fair system of taxation as conscious by the principles in theArthashastra. Chandragupta Maurya established a single currency across India, and a network of regional governors and administrators and a civil service provided judge and security for merchants, farmers and traders.The Mauryan army wiped out many gangs of bandits, regional private armies, and powerful chieftains who sought to impose their own supremacy in small subject fields. Although regimental in revenue collection, Maurya also sponsored many public works and waterways to enhance productivity, whi le internal trade in India expanded greatly due to newfound political unity and internal peace. Mauryan cast copper coin. new-fangled 3rd century BCE. British Museum. Under the Indo-Greek friendship treaty, and during Ashokas command, an international network of trade expanded.TheKhyber Pass, on the modern boundary ofPakistanandAfghanistan, became a strategically great port of trade and intercourse with the outside world. Greek states and Hellenic kingdoms in West Asia became important trade partners of India. Trade also extended through theMalay peninsulainto Southeast Asia. Indias exports included silk goods and textiles, spices and exotic foods. The Empire was enriched further with an interchange of scientific knowledge and technology with Europe and West Asia. Ashoka also sponsored the verbal expression of thousands of roads, waterways, canals, hospitals, rest-houses and other public works.The easing of many over-rigorous administrative practices, including those regarding taxation and crop collection, helped increase productivity and economic activity across the Empire. In many ways, the economic situation in the Mauryan Empire is analogous to the Roman Empire of several centuries later. Both had extensive trade connections and both had organizations similar tocorporations. While Rome had organizational entities which were largely used for public state-driven projects, Mauryan India had numerous private commercial entities. These existed purely for private commerce and developed before the Mauryan Empire itself.The Economic History of the Corporate Form in Ancient India. University of Michigan. &8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212- &8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212- godliness Balarama, holding mace and conch (lower right) on a Maurya coin. Balarama was originally a powerful independent deity of Hinduism, and was considered an avatar ofVishnu. 3rd2nd century CE . British Museum. Buddhiststupasduring the Mauryan period were simple mounds without decorations. only ifkara stupa, 3rd century BCE. Buddhistproselytismat the time of kingAshoka(260218 BCE).Mauryan architecture in theBarabar Mounts. Grottoe of Lomas Richi. 3rd century BCE. Hinduism Hinduismwas the only religion at the time of inception of the empire, Hindu priests and ministers use to be an important part of the emperors court, likeChanakyaalso known asVishnu Gupt. Ajivikas, anasceticHindu movement was also estimable, Bhattotpala, in 950 A. D. identified them with the Ekandandins writes that they are devotees of Narayana (Vishnu), although Shilanka speaking of the Ekandandins in another connection identifies them as Shaivas (devotees ofShiva).Scholar James Hastings identifies the name Mankhaliputta or Mankhali with thebamboo staff. Scholar Jitendra N. Banerjea compares them to thePasupatasShaivas. It is believed by scholar Charpentier that the Ajivikas before Makkhali Goshala wor shiped Shiva. Chanakya wrote in his textChanakya Niti, Humbly bowing down before the almighty schoolmaster Sri Vishnu, the Lord of the three worlds, I recite maxims of the science of political ethics (niti) selected from the miscellaneous satras (scriptures) Even by and by embracing Buddhism, Ashoka well-kept the membership of Hindu Brahmana priests and ministers in his court.Mauryan society began embracing the philosophical system ofahimsa, and given the increased prosperity and change law enforcement, crime and internal conflicts reduced dramatically. Also greatly reject was thecaste systemand orthodox discrimination, as Mauryans began to absorb the ideals and values of Jain and Buddhist teachings on with traditionalVedic Hinduteachings. BuddhismAshoka initially practiced Hinduism but later embracedBuddhism, following theKalinga War, he renounced expansionism and aggression, and the harsher injunctions of theArthashastraon the use of force, intense policing, and ruthless m easures for tax collection and against rebels. Ashoka sent a mission led by his sonMahindaand daughterSanghamittatoSri Lanka, whose kingTissawas so charmed with Buddhist ideals that he adopted them himself and made Buddhism the state religion. Ashoka sent many Buddhist missions oWest Asia,GreeceandSouth East Asia, and commissioned the construction of monasteries, schools and payoff of Buddhist literature across the empire. He is believed to have built as many as 84,000 stupas across India i. e. SanchiandMahabodhi Temple, and he increased the popularity of Buddhism inAfghanistan,ThailandandNorth AsiaincludingSiberia. Ashoka helped convene theThird Buddhist Councilof India and South Asias Buddhist orders, near his capital, a council that undertook much work of reform and expansion of the Buddhist religion. JainismEmperor Chandragupta Maurya embracedJainismafter retiring. At an older age, Chandragupta renounced his throne and material possessions to join a winding group of Jain monks . Chandragupta was a disciple ofAcharya Bhadrabahu. It is said that in his last days, he observed the rigorous but self purifyingJainritual ofsantharai. e. fast unto death, atShravana BelagolainKarnataka. However, his successor, Emperor Bindusara, was a accomplice of a Hindu ascetic movement,Ajivikaand distanced himself from Jain and Buddhist movements. Samprati, the grandson ofAshokaalso embracedJainism.Samrat Samprati was influenced by the teachings of Jain monkArya Suhasti Suriand he is known to have built 125,000Jain Templesacross India. Some of them are still found in towns of Ahmedabad, Viramgam, Ujjain & Palitana. It is also said that just like Ashoka, Samprati sent messengers & preachers to Greece, Persia & middle-east for the spread of Jainism. notwithstanding to date no research has been done in this area. and so, Jainism became a vital force under the Mauryan Rule. Chandragupta&Sampratiare credit for the spread ofJainisminSouthern India.Lakhs ofJain Temples &Jain Stupaswere erected during their reign. But due to deprivation of royal patronage & its strict principles, along with the rise ofShankaracharya&Ramanujacharya,Jainism, once the major religion of southern India, began to decline. architectural remains Architectural remains of the Maurya period are quite few. remain of ahypostylebuilding with about 80 columns of a height of about 10 meters have been found inKumhrar, 5km fromPatna railroad station, and is one of the very few sites that has been connected to the rule of the Mauryas.The style is rather reminiscent of Persian Achaemenid architecture. The grottoes ofBarabar Caves, are another cause of Mauryan architecture, especially the adorned front of the Lomas Rishi grotto. These were offered by the Mauryas to the Buddhist sect of theAjivikas. The most widespread example of Maurya architecture are thePillars of Ashoka, often exquisitely decorated, with more than 40 spread throughout the sub-continent. &8212&8212&8212& 8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212- &8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212&8212- Natural history in the times of the MauryasThe security system of animals in India became serious business by the time of the Maurya dynasty being the first empire to provide a unified political entity in India, the attitude of the Mauryas towards forests, its denizens and wildcat in general is of interest. The Mauryas firstly looked at forests as a resource. For them, the most important forest product was the elephant. Military might in those times depended not only upon horses and men but also battle-elephants these matched a role in the defeat ofSeleucus,Alexanders governor of the Punjab.The Mauryas sought to preserve supplies of elephants since it was cheaper and took less time to catch, tame and train wild elephants than to raise them. KautilyasArthashastracontains not only maxims on ancient statecraft, but also unambiguously spe cifies the responsibilities of officials such as theProtector of the Elephant Forests On the border of the forest, he should establish a forest for elephants guarded by foresters. The Office of the Chief Elephant Forrester should with the help of guards protect the elephants in any terrain.The slaying of an elephant is punishable by death.. Arthashastra The Mauryas also designated separate forests to protect supplies of timber, as well as lions and tigers, for skins. Elsewhere theProtector of Animalsalso worked to egest thieves, tigers and other predators to render the woods safe for grazing cattle. The Mauryas valued certain forest tracts in strategic or economic terms and instituted curbs and control measures over them. They regarded all forest tribes with distrust and controlled them with bribery and political subjugation.They diligent some of them, the food-gatherers oraranyacato guard borders and trap animals. The sometimes tense and conflict-ridden relationship nevertheless enabled the Mauryas to guard their vast empire WhenAshokaembracedBuddhismin the latter part of his reign, he brought about significant changes in his style of governance, which included providing protection to fauna, and even relinquished the royal hunt. He was the first ruler in history to advocate conservation measures for wildlife and even had rules inscribed in stone edicts.The edicts proclaim that many followed the kings example in giving up the drubbing of animals one of them proudly states Our king killed very few animals. Edict on Fifth Pillar However, the edicts of Ashoka reflect more the desire of rulers than actual events the evoke of a 100 panas (coins) fine for poaching deer in royal hunting preserves displays that rule-breakers did exist. The legal restrictions conflicted with the practices freely exercised by the common people in hunting, felling, fishing and setting fires in forests. 24 Foundation of the Empire transaction with the Hellenistic world may have star ted from the very beginning of the Maurya Empire. Plutarchreports that Chandragupta Maurya met withAlexander the Great, in all probability aroundTaxilain the northwest Sandrocottus, when he was a stripling, saw Alexander himself, and we are told that he often said in later times that Alexander narrowly missed making himself master of the country, since its king was dislike and despised on account of his baseness and low birth.Reconquest of the Northwest (c. 310 BCE) Chandragupta ultimately occupied Northwestern India, in the territories formerly ruled by the Greeks, where he fought the satraps (described as Prefects in Western sources) left in place after Alexander (Justin), among whom may have beenEudemus, ruler in the western Punjab until his issue in 317 BCE orPeithon, son of Agenor, ruler of the Greek colonies along the Indus until his departure forBabylonin 316 BCE. India, after the death of Alexander, had assassinated his prefects, as if shaking the burden of servitude. The author of this liberation was Sandracottos, but he had transformed liberation in servitude after victory, since, after taking the throne, he himself oppressed the very people he has liberated from foreign domination Justin XV. 4. 213 Later, as he was preparing war against the prefects of Alexander, a huge wild elephant went to him and took him on his back as if tame, and he became a remarkable fighter and war leader. Having thus acquired royal power, Sandracottos possessed India at the time Seleucos was preparing future glory. Conflict and alliance with Seleucus (305 BCE) Silver coin ofSeleucus I Nicator, who fought Chandragupta Maurya, and later made an alliance with him.Seleucus I Nicator, the Macedoniansatrapof theAsianportion of Alexanders former empire, conquered and put under his own authority eastern territories as far as Bactria and the Indus (Appian, History of Rome, The Syrian Wars 55), until in 305 BCE he entered in a confrontation with Chandragupta Always lying in wait for the neighboring nations, strong in arms and persuasive in council, he Seleucus acquired Mesopotamia, Armenia, Seleucid Cappadocia, Persis, Parthia, Bactria, Arabia, Tapouria, Sogdia, Arachosia, Hyrcania, and other adjacent peoples that had been subdued by Alexander, as far as the river Indus, so that the boundaries of his empire were the most extensive in Asia after that of Alexander. The whole region from Phrygia to the Indus was subject to Seleucus.Appian, History of Rome, The Syrian Wars 5528 Though no accounts of the conflict remain, it is clear that Seleucus fared poorly against the Indian Emperor as he failed in conquering any territory, and in fact, was forced to surrender much that was already his. Regardless, Seleucus and Chandragupta ultimately reached a settlement and through a treaty sealed in 305 BCE, Seleucus, according to Strabo, ceded a number of territories to Chandragupta, including southernAfghanistanand parts ofPersia. Accordingly, Seleucus obtained five hun dred war elephants, a military asset which would play a decisive role at theBattle of Ipsusin 301 BCE. Marital allianceIt is generally thought that Chandragupta marriedSeleucussdaughter, or a GreekMacedonianprincess, a gift from Seleucus to formalize an alliance. In a return gesture, Chandragupta sent 500war-elephants,a military asset which would play a decisive role at theBattle of Ipsusin 302 BC. In addition to this treaty, Seleucus dispatched an ambassador,Megasthenes, to Chandragupta, and laterDeimakosto his sonBindusara, at the Mauryan court atPataliputra(modernPatnainBihar state). LaterPtolemy II Philadelphus, the ruler ofPtolemaic Egyptand contemporary ofAshoka the Great, is also save byPliny the Elderas having sent an ambassador namedDionysiusto the Mauryan court.Mainstream scholarship asserts that Chandragupta received vast territory west of the Indus, including theHindu Kush, modern dayAfghanistan, and theBalochistanprovince ofPakistan. Archaeologically, concrete indicati ons of Mauryan rule, such as the inscriptions of theEdicts of Ashoka, are known as far asKandhaharin southern Afghanistan. The treaty on Epigamia implies square marriage between Greeks and Indians was recognized at the State level, although it is unclear whether it occurred among dynastic rulers or common people, or both . Exchange of ambassadors Seleucus dispatched an ambassador,Megasthenes, to Chandragupta, and laterDeimakosto his sonBindusara, at the Mauryan court atPataliputra(ModernPatnainBihar state).LaterPtolemy II Philadelphus, the ruler ofPtolemaic Egyptand contemporary of Ashoka, is also recorded byPliny the Elderas having sent an ambassador namedDionysiusto theMauryancourt. Exchange of presents determinate sources have also recorded that following their treaty, Chandragupta and Seleucus exchanged presents, such as when Chandragupta sent variousaphrodisiacsto Seleucus And Theophrastus says that some contrivances are of wondrous efficacy in such matters as to make people more amorous. And Phylarchus confirms him, by reference to some of the presents which Sandrakottus, the king of the Indians, sent to Seleucus which were to act like charms in producing a wonderful spirit level of affection, while some, on the contrary, were to banish loveAthenaeus of Naucratis.His sonBindusaraAmitraghata (Slayer of Enemies) also is recorded in Classical sources as having exchanged present withAntiochus I But dried figs were so very much sought after by all men (for really, asAristophanessays, Theres really nothing nicer than dried figs), that even Amitrochates, the king of the Indians, wrote toAntiochus, entreating him (it isHegesanderwho tells this story) to taint and send him some sweet wine, and some dried figs, and asophist and that Antiochus wrote to him in answer, The dry figs and the sweet wine we will send you but it is not lawful for a sophist to be sold in GreeceAthenaeus, Deipnosophistae XIV. 67 Greek population in IndiaGreek population plain remained i n the northwest of the Indian subcontinent under Ashokas rule. In hisEdicts of Ashoka, set in stone, some of them written in Greek, Ashoka describes that Greek population at bottom his kingdom converted to Buddhism Here in the kings domain among the Greeks, theKambojas, the Nabhakas, the Nabhapamkits, the Bhojas, the Pitinikas, theAndhrasand the Palidas, everywhere people are following Beloved-of-the-Gods instructions inDharma. Rock Edict Nb13(S. Dhammika). Fragments of Edict 13 have been found in Greek, and a full Edict, written in both Greek and Aramaic has been discovered inKandahar. It is said to be written in excellent Classical Greek, using educate philosophic terms.In this Edict, Ashoka uses the wordEusebeia(Piety) as the Greek translation for the omnipresent Dharma of his other Edicts written inPrakrit Ten years (of reign) having been completed, King Piodasses (Ashoka) made known (the doctrine of) Piety to men and from this moment he has made men more pious, and everyth ing thrives throughout the whole world. And the king abstains from (killing) living beings, and other men and those who (are) huntsmen and fishermen of the king have desisted from hunting. And if some (were) intemperate, they have ceased from their intemperance as was in their power and obedient to their father and mother and to the elders, in showdown to the past also in the future, by so acting on every occasion, they will live better and more happily.Buddhist missions to the West (c. 250 BCE) Front view of the single lion capital inVaishali. Also, in theEdicts of Ashoka, Ashoka mentions the Hellenistic kings of the period as a recipient of hisBuddhistproselytism, although no Western historical record of this event remain The conquest byDharmahas been won here, on the borders, and even six hundredyojanas(5,4009,600 km) away, where the Greek kingAntiochosrules, beyond there where the four kings namedPtolemy,Antigonos,MagasandAlexanderrule, likewise in the south among theCholas, th ePandyas, and as far asTamraparni(Sri Lanka). (Edicts of Ashoka, 13th Rock Edict, S. Dhammika).Ashoka also claims that he encouraged the development ofherbal medicine, for men and animals, in their territories Everywhere within Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasis Ashokas domain, and among the people beyond the borders, theCholas, thePandyas, the Satiyaputras, the Keralaputras, as far asTamraparniand where the Greek kingAntiochosrules, and among the kings who are neighbors of Antiochos, everywhere has Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, made provision for two types of medical word medical treatment for humans and medical treatment for animals. Wherever medical herbs suitable for humans or animals are not available, I have had them imported and grown. Wherever medical roots or fruits are not available I have had them imported and grown. on roads I have had wells dug and trees planted for the benefit of humans and animals. nd Rock Edict The Greeks in India even front to have played an active role in the propagation of Buddhism, as some of the emissaries of Ashoka, such asDharmaraksita, are described inPalisources as leading Greek (Yona) Buddhist monks, active in Buddhist proselytism (theMahavamsa, Subhagsena and Antiochos III (206 BCE) Sophagasenuswas an IndianMauryanruler of the 3rd century BCE, described in ancient Greek sources, and named Subhagsena or Subhashsena inPrakrit. His name is mentioned in the list of Mauryan princes, and also in the list of the Yadava dynasty, as a descendant of Pradyumna. He may have been a grandson ofAshoka, orKunala, the son of Ashoka. He ruled an area south of theHindu Kush, possibly inGandhara. Antiochos III, theSeleucidking, after having made peace withEuthydemusinBactria, went to India in 206 BC nd is said to have regenerate his friendship with the Indian king there He (Antiochus) crossed the Caucasus and descended into India re-create his friendship with Sophagasenus the king of the Indians received more elephants, unti l he had a hundred and fifty altogether and having once more provisioned his troops, set out again personally with his army leaving Androsthenes of Cyzicus the duty of taking home the lever which this king had agreed to hand over to him. Ashoka was followed for 50 years by a succession of weaker kings. Brhadrata, the last ruler of theMauryan dynasty, held territories that had shrunk considerably from the time of emperorAshoka, although he still upheld the Buddhist faith. Sunga coup (185 BCE) Brihadratawas assassinated in 185 BCE during a military parade, by the commander-in-chief of his guard, the brahmingeneralPusyamitra Sunga, who then took over the throne and established theSunga dynasty.Buddhist records such as theAsokavadanawrite that the assassination of Brhadrata and the rise of the Sunga empire led to a wave of persecution forBuddhists,and a resurgence ofHinduism. According toSir John Marshall,Pusyamitra may have been the main author of the persecutions, although later Sung a kings come along to have been more supportive of Buddhism. Other historians, such asEtienne Lamotte andRomila Thapar, among others, have argued that archaeological evidence in favor of the allegations of persecution of Buddhists are lacking, and that the extent and order of magnitude of the atrocities have been exaggerated. Establishment of the Indo-Greek Kingdom (180 BCE) The fall of the Mauryas left theKhyber Passunguarded, and a wave of foreign invasion followed.TheGreco-Bactrianking,Demetrius, capitalized on the break-up, and he conquered southern Afghanistan and Pakistan around 180 BC, forming theIndo-Greek Kingdom. The Indo-Greeks would maintain holdings on the trans-Indus region, and make forays into central India, for about a century. Under them, Buddhism flourished, and one of their kingsMenanderbecame a famous figure of Buddhism, he was to establish a new capital of Sagala, the modern city ofSialkot. However, the extent of their domains and the lengths of their rule are subject to much debate. Numismatic evidence indicates that they retained holdings in the subcontinent right up to the birth of Christ.Although the extent of their successes against indigenous powers such as theSungas,Satavahanas, andKalingasare unclear, what is clear is that Scythian tribes, renamedIndo-Scythians, brought about the demise of the Indo-Greeks from around 70 BCE and retained lands in the trans-Indus, the region ofMathura, and Gujarat. Reasons The decline of the Maurya Dynasty was rather rapid after the death of Ashoka/Asoka. One obvious reason for it was the succession of weak kings. Another neighboring(a) cause was the partition of the Empire into two. Had not the partition taken place, the Greek invasions could have been held back giving a chance to the Mauryas to re-establish some degree of their previous power. Regarding the decline much has been written. Haraprasad Sastri contends that the sedition by Pushyamitra was the result of brahminical reply against th e pro-Buddhist policies of Ashoka and pro-Jaina policies of his successors.Basing themselves on this thesis, some maintain the view that brahminical chemical reaction was responsible for the decline because of the following reasons. 1. Prohibition of the slaughter of animals displeased the brahmans as animal sacrifices were esteemed by them. 2. The book Divyavadana refers to the persecution of Buddhists by Pushyamitra Sunga. 3. Asokas claim that he exposed the Budheveas (brahmins) as false gods shows that Ashoka was not well disposed towards Brahmins. 4. The obtain of power by Pushyamitra Sunga shows the triumph of Brahmins 5. any of these four points can be easily refuted. 6. Asokas compassion towards animals was not an overnight decision. Repulsion of animal sacrifices grew over a long period of time. Even Brahmins gave it up. 7.The book Divyavadana cannot be relied upon since it was during the time of Pushyamitra Sunga that the Sanchi and Barhut stupas were completed. The impre ssion of the persecution of Buddhism was probably created by Menanders invasion, since he was a Buddhist. 8. The word budheva is misinterpreted because this word is to be taken in the context of some other phrase. Viewed like this, the word has nothing to do with brahminism. 9. The victory of Pushyamitra Sunga clearly shows that the last of the Mauryas was an ill-chosen ruler since he was overthrown in the very presence of his army, and this had nothing to do with brahminical reaction against Asokas patronage of Buddhism.Moreover, the very fact that a Brahmin was the commander in chief of the Mauryan ruler proves that the Mauryas and the Brahmins were on good terms. After all, the distinction between Hinduism and Buddhism in India was purely sectarian and never more than the difference between saivism and vaishnavism. The exclusiveness of religious doctrines is a Semitic conception, which was inscrutable to India for a long time. Buddha himself was looked upon in his lifetime and afterwards as a Hindu saint and avatar and his followers were but another sect in the great Aryan tradition. Ashoka was a Buddhist in the same way as Harsha was a Budhist, or Kumarapala was a Jain.But in the view of the people of the day he was a Hindu monarch following one of the recognized sects. His own inscriptions bear ample withness to the fact. While his doctrines follow the middle path, his gifts are to the brahmibns, sramansa (Buddhist priests) and others equally. His own name of adoption is Devanam Priya, the pricey of the gods. Which gods? Surely the gods of the Aryan religion. Buddhism had no gods of its own. The idea that Ashoka was a kind of Buddhist Constantine declearing himself against paganism is a complete misreading of India conditions. Asoka was a kind or Buddhist Constantine declearing himself against paganism is a complete misreading of India conditions.Asoka was essentially a Hindu, as indeed was the founder of the sect to which he belonged. Raychaudhury too rebuts the arguments of Sastri. The empire had shrunk considerably and there was no revolution. Killing the Mauryan King while he was reviewing the army points to a palace coup detat not a revolution. The organization were ready to accept any one who could promise a more efficient organization. Also if Pushyamitra was really a representative of brahminical reaction he neighbouting kings would have definitely given him assistance. The argument that the empire became effete because of Asokan policies is also very thin. All the evidence suggests that Asoka was a stern monarch although his reign witnessed only a single campaign.He was shrewd enough in retaining Kalinga although he expressed his remorse. Well he was wordly-wise to enslave and-and-half hundred thousand sudras of Kalinga and bring them to the Magadha region to cut forests and cultivate land. More than this his tours of the empire were not only meant for the sake of piety but also for keeping an eye on the centrifugal tend encies of the empire. Which addressing the tribal people Asoka expressed his willingness to for given. More Draconian was Ashokas message to the forest tribes who were warned of the power which he possessed. This view of Raychoudhury on the passivism of the State cannot be substantiated. Apart from these two major writers there is a third view as expressed by kosambi.He based his arguments that unnecessary measures were taken up to increase tax and the punch-marked coins of the period show evidence of debasement. This contention too cannot be up held. It is quite possible that debased coins began to circulate during the period of the later Mauryas. On the other hand the debasement may also indicate that there was an increased pick up for silver in relation to goods leading to the silver content of the coins being reduced. More important point is the fact that the material remains of the post-Asokan era do not suggest any pressure on the economy. or else the economy prospered as s hown by archaeological evidence at Hastinapura and Sisupalqarh. The reign of Asoka was an asset to the economy.The unification of the country under single efficient administration the organization and increase in communications meant the development of trade as well as an opening of many new commercial interest. In the post Asokan period surplus wealth was used by the rebellion commercial classes to decorate religious buildings. The sculpture at Barhut and Sanchi and the Deccan caves was the contribution of this new bourgeoisie. heretofore another view regarding of the decline of Mauryas was that the coup of Pushyamitra was a peoples snub against Mauryans oppressiveness and a rejection of the Maurya adoption of foreign ideas, as far interest in Mauryan Art. This argument is based on the view that Sunga art (Sculpture at Barhut and Sanchi) is more earthy and in the folk tradition that Maruyan art. This is more stretching the argument too far.The character of Sunga art changed be cause it served a different purpose and its donors belonged to different social classes. Also, Sunga art conformed more to the folk traditions because Buddhism itself had incorporated large elements of popular cults and because the donors of this art, many of whom may have been artisans, were culturally more in the mainstream of folk tradition. One more reasoning to support the popular revolt theory is based on Asokas ban on the samajas. Asoka did ban brave meetings and discouraged eating of meat. These too might have entagonised the population but it is doubtful whether these prohibitions were strictly enforced.The above argument (peoples revolt) also means that Asokas policy was continued by his successors also, an assumption not confirmed by historical data. Further more, it is unlikely that there was sufficient national consciousness among the wide-ranging people of the Mauryan empire. It is also argued by these theorists that Asokan policy in all its details was continued by the later Mauryas, which is not a historical fact. Still another argument that is advanced in favour of the idea of revolt against the Mauryas is that the land tax under the Mauryas was one- crap, which was very burden some to the cultivator. But historical evidence shows something else. The land tax varied from region to region according to the fertility of the soil and the availability of water.The figure of one quarter stated by Magasthenes probably referred only to the fertile and well-watered regions around Pataliputra. Thus the decline of the Mauryan empire cannot be satis cistronily explained by referring to Military inactivity, Brahmin resentment, popular uprising or economic pressure. The causes of the decline were more fundamental. The organization of administration and the concept of the State were such that they could be sustained by only by kings of considerably personal ability. After the death of Asoka there was definitely a weakening at the center particularly after the division of the empire, which inevitably led to the breaking of provinces from the Mauryan rule.Also, it should be borne in mind that all the officials owed their loyalty to the king and not to the State. This meant that a change of king could result in change of officials leading to the demoralization of the officers. Mauryas had no system of ensuring the continuation of well-planned bureaucracy. The next important weakness of the Mauryan Empire was its extreme centralisation and the virtual monopoly of all powers by the king. There was a total absence of any advisory institution representing public opinion. That is why the Mauryas depended greatly on the espionage system. Added to this lack of representative institutions there was no distinction between the executive and the judiciary of the government.An incapable king may use the officers either for purposes of oppression or fail to use it for good purpose. And as the successors of Asoka happened to be weak, the empire ine vitably declined. Added to these two factors, there is no conception of national unity of political consciousness. It is clear from the fact that even the resistance against the greeks as the dislike miecchas was not an organized one. The only resistance was that of the local rulers who were afraid of losing their impudently acquired territory. It is significant that when Porus was fighting Alexander, or when Subhagasena was paying tribute to Antiochus, they were doing so as isolated rulers in the northwest of India.They had no support from Pataliputra, nor are they even mentioned in any Indian sources as offering resistance to the hate Yavanas. Even the heroic Porus, who, enemy though he was, won the surprise of the Greeks, is left unrecorded in Indian sources. Another associated point of great importance is the fact that the Mauryan Empire which was highly centralized and autocratic was the first and last one of its kind. If the Mauryan Empire did not survive for long, it coul d be because of the bankruptcy of the successors of Asoka to hold on to the principles that could make success of such an empire. Further, the Mauryan empire and the philosophy of the empire was not in tune with the spirit of the time because Aryanism and brahminism was very much there.According to the Brahmin or Aryan philosophy, the king was only an upholder of dharma, but never the crucial or architecture factor influencing the whole of life. In other words, the sentiment of the people towards the political factor, that is the State was never established in India. Such being the reality, when the successors of Asoka failed to make use of the institution and the thinking that was needed to make a success of a centralized political authority. The Mauryan Empire declined without anyones regret. Other factors of importance that contributed to the decline and lack of national unity were the ownership of land and inequality of economic levels. record could frequently change hands.Fert ility wise the region of the Ganges was more prosperous than northern Deccan. Mauryan administration was not fully tuned to meet the animate disparities in economic activity. Had the southern region been more developed, the empire could have witnessed economic homogeneity. Also the people of the sub-continent were not of uniform cultural level. The sophisticated cities and the trade centers were a great contrast to the isolated village communities. All these differences naturally led to the economic and political structures being different from region to region. It is also a fact that even the languages spoken were varied. The history of a